Howard Gardner
Until 1983, the prevailing view of intelligence held that it could be measured by assessment of verbal and mathematical abilities and assigned a number, the intelligence quotient (IQ). The widespread use of standardized IQ tests, emphasis and time commitment in elementary school on language, literacy, and mathematics is evidence of the major influence of this perspective. In 1983, Howard Gardner (1943), a cognitive psychologist like Piaget, published Frames of Mind, challenging that view by describing intelligence as multidimensional, interactive, and fluid. Gardner identified seven distinct intelligences and added two more in 1995 (see Table 1.1).’