Fluid and crystallized intelligence
Although fluid intelligence begins to decline relatively early, crystallized intelligence continues to increase with age. What kinds of implications does this pattern have for overall competence and intelligence?
Source: Adapted from Baltes, P. B., Staudinger, U. M., & Lindenberger, U. (1999). Lifespan psychology: Theory and application to intellectual functioning. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 471–507. Copyright 1999 Annual Reviews. All rights reserved.
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Section 9.7 The Influence of Advancing Age on Cognition
Cognitive Training As you learned in Chapter 6, main- taining physical fitness is the most important element to preserve cog- nitive health. Evidence continues to accumulate that when the body exer- cises, the mind benefits too. Research shows that both aerobic activity and resistance training help older adults improve their information-processing speed, verbal memory, spatial mem- ory, and overall intellectual function- ing, even when there is mild cognitive impairment (Baker et al., 2010; Liu- Ambrose et al., 2010; Nagamatsu et al., 2013; Prince et al., 2011).
Recall also that remaining busy socially and engaged cognitively appear some- what beneficial as well. Instead of sim- ply investigating whether everyday activities like reading and doing crossword puzzles are correlated with health and longevity, SLS researchers and others have explored whether specific kinds of training improve cog- nitive functioning. Exercises might include solving puzzles, doing multipart work requiring manipulation of information, or discussing complex subjects with others. These studies show that with training older adults can indeed improve reasoning ability and processing speed, augment memory, and enhance visual searching skills. Researchers found that effects lasted up to 2 years and were amplified by additional training (Ball et al., 2002; Boron, Turiano, Wil- lis, & Schaie, 2007; Schaie, 2005; Willis et al., 2006). Other studies have found that for people 80 years and older, the combination of physical activity with cognitive training produces the most robust cognitive benefit (Shatil, 2013).
Importantly, it is unclear whether or not specific kinds of training transfer to tasks outside of laboratory testing. However, because of the consistency of these studies, the Internet is now rich with cognitive training activities. Although research has yet to validate the long-term effects of specific exercises, there is convincing evidence that greater lifetime cognitive activ- ity in general reduces neurodegeneration (e.g., Serra et al., 2015).
Chapter Summary Defining what intelligence is remains one of the most enduring concepts in psychology. Understanding how much weight we should give to innate skills versus learned behavior is complicated, and not easy to separate. Traditional models of intelligence have relied on psychometrics to provide both an overall IQ as well as a way to compare subscales of spe- cific strengths and weaknesses. Outside of research, IQ testing is most often used to properly identify and service those who are at the extremes of intelligence.
For most individuals, other models of intelligence have more practical value. Gardner’s the- ory of multiple intelligences and Sternberg’s triarchic model conceptualize intelligence as more than the ability to acquire only certain kinds of information. Psychologists also study creativity and emotional intelligence as additional ways to understand the development of cognition. Perhaps no one has provided more information in the study of aging and cogni- tion than K. Werner Schaie and his colleagues in the Seattle Longitudinal Study. The wealth of data over the last 60 years has allowed us to redefine how we look at aging and cognition. Undoubtedly, the cognitive stability we see has an effect on psychosocial development over the lifespan as well, a topic we will visit over the next several chapters.