Although the mystical

Although the mystical

orientation is more common in religions that stress the immanence of the sacred or that

are nontheistic, it is an important but less prominent tendency in Judaism, Christianity,

and Islam as well.

Any one of these three orientations may be dominant in a religion, yet the other two orientations

might also be found in the same religion to a lesser extent and possibly be subsumed into a

different purpose. For example, ceremony can be utilized to help induce mystical experience, as

in Catholic and Orthodox Christianity, Japanese Shingon Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, Daoism,

and even Zen Buddhism, which has a strongly ritualistic aspect of its own.

Third Pattern: Views of Male and Female

Because gender is such an intrinsic and important part of being human, religions have had much

to say about the roles of men and women, both on earth and in the divine spheres. Because of

differences in how religions view these differences, they may constitute another underlying

pattern that we can investigate when studying religions. Thus, views of what is male and what is

female provide another basis for comparing religions.

In many influential religions today, male imagery and control seem to dominate; the sacred is

considered male, and the full-time religious specialists are frequently male. But this may not

always have been the case. Tantalizing evidence suggests that female divinities once played an

important role in many cultures and religions. The most significant female deity was particularly

associated with fertility and motherhood and has been known by many names, such as Astarte,

Asherah, Aphrodite, and Freia (the origin of the word Friday). Statues of a Mother-Goddess—

sometimes with many breasts to suggest the spiritual power of the nurturing female—have been

found throughout Europe, as well as in Turkey, Israel, and the Middle East.

Deeper Insights: Multiple Images of the Female

Religions frequently have been criticized for the dominance of males, both in their religious

leadership and in their images of the sacred. While there is truth to such criticism, scholarly

 

 

attention helps us to note the multitude of female roles and images to be found among religions.

Consider these examples:

 

Easter, a springtime festival of fertility, is marked by these Easter eggs decorating a European

shop window.

© Thomas Hilgers

 In India, the divine is worshiped in its female aspects as the Great Mother (also known as

Kali and Durga) or as other female deities.

 In Catholic and Orthodox Christianity, Mary, the mother of Jesus, receives special

veneration; she is held to possess superhuman powers and is a strong role model for

women’s behavior.

 In the Mahayana Buddhist pantheon, Guanyin (Kannon) is worshiped as a female ideal of

mercy.

 In Japan, the premier Shinto divinity is the goddess Amaterasu, patroness of the imperial

family. In contrast to many other religious systems, the goddess Amaterasu is associated

with the sun, and a male god is associated with the moon.

 In Korea and Japan, shamans are frequently female.

 In Africa, India, and elsewhere, some tribal cultures remain matriarchal.

 In Wicca—a contemporary restoration of ancient, nature-based religion—devotees

worship a female deity they refer to as the Goddess.

 

 

 Symbolic forms of the female divine are still prominent in the rites of several religions.

Common symbols include the moon, the snake, spirals and labyrinths, the egg, yoni

(symbolic vagina), water, and earth. These symbolic representations of the female

suggest generation, growth, nurturance, intuition, and wisdom.

Is it possible that female images of the divine were once more common and that female religious

leadership once played a more important role? It has been argued that male dominance in

religion became more common as the result of the growth of city-states, which needed organized

defense and so elevated the status of men because of their fighting ability. In Israel, worship of a

female deity was stamped out by prophets who preached exclusive worship of the male god

Yahweh and by kings who wanted loyalty paid to them and their offspring. We read passages

like this in the Hebrew scriptures: “They abandoned the Lord and worshipped Baal and the

Astartes. So the anger of the Lord was kindled against Israel” (Judg. 2:13–14). 13

The Christian

New Testament contains words that sometimes have been interpreted to mean that women

should not play a prominent role in public worship: “I do not allow them to teach or to have

authority over men; they must keep quiet. For Adam was created first, and then Eve. And it was

not Adam who was deceived; it was the woman who was deceived and broke God’s law” (1 Tim.

2:12–14). 14

In Asia, Confucianism has been distrustful of women in general and has ordinarily

refused them leadership roles. In Buddhism, despite recognition in scripture that women can be

enlightened, in practice the great majority of leaders have been men. 15

 

A century ago, great numbers of people across the world had little experience of the different

beliefs and practices in other regions. But radio, television, the Internet, smartphones, and other

technologies have changed this. Thus it is no surprise that long-established customs regarding

gender should now be challenged and changed.

Such changes may not come easily. In some religious traditions, the possibility of changes can

produce a rift. This is happening today, for example, in the Christian Anglican Communion and

several other Christian denominations. We can expect similar disruptions in other religious

traditions, as technological changes bring knowledge of different cultures.

 

 

 

In many religions, the gender associated with positions of power is no longer exclusively male.

Here, female priests lead a communion service.

© AP/Wide World Photos

Knowledge of other cultures will continue to grow, and the study of other religions will

contribute to this process. Such study will open people’s eyes not only to the gender expectations

in religions of the past, but also to today’s evolving practices. This is nudging several religious

traditions to accept women in areas where in earlier centuries they were not expected to have a

role. Although there are many resultant tensions (those in Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam are

currently receiving publicity), we can expect that women will be widely successful in receiving

full acceptance in roles of leadership.

Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Study of Religion

Religion has influenced so many areas of human life that it is a subject not only of religious

studies but of other disciplines, too. As we have seen, the social sciences, in particular, have long

studied religion. More recently, linguistics, literary theory, and cultural studies have offered us

new ways of seeing and interpreting religion.

There are other approaches, too. We can focus our study on a single religion or look at several

religions at the same time. Believers may opt to explore their own religion “from the inside,”

while nonbelievers may want to concentrate on the answers that several religions have given to a

single question, such as the purpose of human life. Following is a list of some common

approaches to religion.

 

 

 Psychology Psychology (Greek: “soul study”) deals with human mental states, emotions,

and behaviors. Despite being a fairly young discipline, psychology has taken a close look

at religion because it offers such rich human “material” to explore. A few areas of study

include religious influences on child rearing, human behavior, gender expectations, and

self-identity; group dynamics in religion; trance states; and comparative mystical

experiences.

 Mythology The study of religious tales, texts, and art has uncovered some universal

patterns. Mythology is full of the recurrent images and themes found in religions, such as

the tree of knowledge, the ladder to heaven, the fountain of life, the labyrinth, the secret

garden, the holy mountain, the newborn child, the suffering hero, initiation, rebirth, the

cosmic battle, the female spirit guide, and the aged teacher of wisdom.

 Philosophy Philosophy (Greek: “love of wisdom”) in some ways originated from a

struggle with religion; although both arenas pose many of the same questions, philosophy

does not automatically accept the answers given by any religion to the great questions.

Instead, philosophy seeks answers independently, following reason rather than religious

authority, and it tries to fit its answers into a rational, systematic whole. Some questions

philosophy asks are, Does human life have any purpose? Is there an afterlife? How

should we live? Philosophy is essentially the work of individuals, while religion is a

community experience; philosophy tries to avoid emotion, while religion often nurtures

it; and philosophy is carried on without ritual, while religion naturally expresses itself in

ceremony.

 Theology Theology (Greek: “study of the divine”) is the study of topics as they relate to

one particular religious tradition. A theologian is an individual who usually studies his or

her own belief system. For example, a person who is in training to become a Christian

minister might study Christian theology.

 The arts Comparing patterns in religious art makes an intriguing study. For example,

religious architecture often uses symmetry, height, and archaic styles to suggest the

sacred; religious music frequently employs a slow pace and repeated rhythms to induce

tranquillity; and religious art often incorporates gold, haloes, equilateral designs, and

circles to suggest otherworldliness and perfection.

 Anthropology Anthropology (Greek: “study of human beings”) has been interested in

how religions influence the ways different cultures deal with issues such as family

interaction, individual roles, property rights, marriage, child rearing, social hierarchies,

and division of labor.

 

 

 

Volunteers assist with excavations in Caesarea Maritima, exploring the foundations of a

2,000-year-old seaside temple possibly built by King Herod.

© AP Photo/Eyal Warshavsky

 Archeology Archeology (Greek: “study of origins”) explores the remains of earlier

civilizations, often uncovering the artifacts and ruins of religious buildings from ancient

cultures. When possible, archeologists translate writings left by these people, much of

which can be religious in origin. Archeology occasionally sheds light on how one religion

has influenced another. For example, the excavation of a cuneiform library at Nineveh

150 years ago revealed a story (in the Epic of Gilgamesh) that is similar to—and may

have influenced—the biblical story of Noah and the flood. Archeology can also reveal

religious material that enables scholars to decipher an entire writing system. For example,

the discovery in the early nineteenth century of the Rosetta Stone (which contained the

same inscription in three different scripts) led researchers to unlock the meaning of

Egyptian hieroglyphics.

Place Your Order Here!

Leave a Comment

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *