Although the mystical
orientation is more common in religions that stress the immanence of the sacred or that
are nontheistic, it is an important but less prominent tendency in Judaism, Christianity,
and Islam as well.
Any one of these three orientations may be dominant in a religion, yet the other two orientations
might also be found in the same religion to a lesser extent and possibly be subsumed into a
different purpose. For example, ceremony can be utilized to help induce mystical experience, as
in Catholic and Orthodox Christianity, Japanese Shingon Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, Daoism,
and even Zen Buddhism, which has a strongly ritualistic aspect of its own.
Third Pattern: Views of Male and Female
Because gender is such an intrinsic and important part of being human, religions have had much
to say about the roles of men and women, both on earth and in the divine spheres. Because of
differences in how religions view these differences, they may constitute another underlying
pattern that we can investigate when studying religions. Thus, views of what is male and what is
female provide another basis for comparing religions.
In many influential religions today, male imagery and control seem to dominate; the sacred is
considered male, and the full-time religious specialists are frequently male. But this may not
always have been the case. Tantalizing evidence suggests that female divinities once played an
important role in many cultures and religions. The most significant female deity was particularly
associated with fertility and motherhood and has been known by many names, such as Astarte,
Asherah, Aphrodite, and Freia (the origin of the word Friday). Statues of a Mother-Goddess—
sometimes with many breasts to suggest the spiritual power of the nurturing female—have been
found throughout Europe, as well as in Turkey, Israel, and the Middle East.
Deeper Insights: Multiple Images of the Female
Religions frequently have been criticized for the dominance of males, both in their religious
leadership and in their images of the sacred. While there is truth to such criticism, scholarly
attention helps us to note the multitude of female roles and images to be found among religions.
Consider these examples:
Easter, a springtime festival of fertility, is marked by these Easter eggs decorating a European
shop window.
© Thomas Hilgers
In India, the divine is worshiped in its female aspects as the Great Mother (also known as
Kali and Durga) or as other female deities.
In Catholic and Orthodox Christianity, Mary, the mother of Jesus, receives special
veneration; she is held to possess superhuman powers and is a strong role model for
women’s behavior.
In the Mahayana Buddhist pantheon, Guanyin (Kannon) is worshiped as a female ideal of
mercy.
In Japan, the premier Shinto divinity is the goddess Amaterasu, patroness of the imperial
family. In contrast to many other religious systems, the goddess Amaterasu is associated
with the sun, and a male god is associated with the moon.
In Korea and Japan, shamans are frequently female.
In Africa, India, and elsewhere, some tribal cultures remain matriarchal.
In Wicca—a contemporary restoration of ancient, nature-based religion—devotees
worship a female deity they refer to as the Goddess.
Symbolic forms of the female divine are still prominent in the rites of several religions.
Common symbols include the moon, the snake, spirals and labyrinths, the egg, yoni
(symbolic vagina), water, and earth. These symbolic representations of the female
suggest generation, growth, nurturance, intuition, and wisdom.
Is it possible that female images of the divine were once more common and that female religious
leadership once played a more important role? It has been argued that male dominance in
religion became more common as the result of the growth of city-states, which needed organized
defense and so elevated the status of men because of their fighting ability. In Israel, worship of a
female deity was stamped out by prophets who preached exclusive worship of the male god
Yahweh and by kings who wanted loyalty paid to them and their offspring. We read passages
like this in the Hebrew scriptures: “They abandoned the Lord and worshipped Baal and the
Astartes. So the anger of the Lord was kindled against Israel” (Judg. 2:13–14). 13
The Christian
New Testament contains words that sometimes have been interpreted to mean that women
should not play a prominent role in public worship: “I do not allow them to teach or to have
authority over men; they must keep quiet. For Adam was created first, and then Eve. And it was
not Adam who was deceived; it was the woman who was deceived and broke God’s law” (1 Tim.
2:12–14). 14
In Asia, Confucianism has been distrustful of women in general and has ordinarily
refused them leadership roles. In Buddhism, despite recognition in scripture that women can be
enlightened, in practice the great majority of leaders have been men. 15
A century ago, great numbers of people across the world had little experience of the different
beliefs and practices in other regions. But radio, television, the Internet, smartphones, and other
technologies have changed this. Thus it is no surprise that long-established customs regarding
gender should now be challenged and changed.
Such changes may not come easily. In some religious traditions, the possibility of changes can
produce a rift. This is happening today, for example, in the Christian Anglican Communion and
several other Christian denominations. We can expect similar disruptions in other religious
traditions, as technological changes bring knowledge of different cultures.
In many religions, the gender associated with positions of power is no longer exclusively male.
Here, female priests lead a communion service.
© AP/Wide World Photos
Knowledge of other cultures will continue to grow, and the study of other religions will
contribute to this process. Such study will open people’s eyes not only to the gender expectations
in religions of the past, but also to today’s evolving practices. This is nudging several religious
traditions to accept women in areas where in earlier centuries they were not expected to have a
role. Although there are many resultant tensions (those in Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam are
currently receiving publicity), we can expect that women will be widely successful in receiving
full acceptance in roles of leadership.
Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Study of Religion
Religion has influenced so many areas of human life that it is a subject not only of religious
studies but of other disciplines, too. As we have seen, the social sciences, in particular, have long
studied religion. More recently, linguistics, literary theory, and cultural studies have offered us
new ways of seeing and interpreting religion.
There are other approaches, too. We can focus our study on a single religion or look at several
religions at the same time. Believers may opt to explore their own religion “from the inside,”
while nonbelievers may want to concentrate on the answers that several religions have given to a
single question, such as the purpose of human life. Following is a list of some common
approaches to religion.
Psychology Psychology (Greek: “soul study”) deals with human mental states, emotions,
and behaviors. Despite being a fairly young discipline, psychology has taken a close look
at religion because it offers such rich human “material” to explore. A few areas of study
include religious influences on child rearing, human behavior, gender expectations, and
self-identity; group dynamics in religion; trance states; and comparative mystical
experiences.
Mythology The study of religious tales, texts, and art has uncovered some universal
patterns. Mythology is full of the recurrent images and themes found in religions, such as
the tree of knowledge, the ladder to heaven, the fountain of life, the labyrinth, the secret
garden, the holy mountain, the newborn child, the suffering hero, initiation, rebirth, the
cosmic battle, the female spirit guide, and the aged teacher of wisdom.
Philosophy Philosophy (Greek: “love of wisdom”) in some ways originated from a
struggle with religion; although both arenas pose many of the same questions, philosophy
does not automatically accept the answers given by any religion to the great questions.
Instead, philosophy seeks answers independently, following reason rather than religious
authority, and it tries to fit its answers into a rational, systematic whole. Some questions
philosophy asks are, Does human life have any purpose? Is there an afterlife? How
should we live? Philosophy is essentially the work of individuals, while religion is a
community experience; philosophy tries to avoid emotion, while religion often nurtures
it; and philosophy is carried on without ritual, while religion naturally expresses itself in
ceremony.
Theology Theology (Greek: “study of the divine”) is the study of topics as they relate to
one particular religious tradition. A theologian is an individual who usually studies his or
her own belief system. For example, a person who is in training to become a Christian
minister might study Christian theology.
The arts Comparing patterns in religious art makes an intriguing study. For example,
religious architecture often uses symmetry, height, and archaic styles to suggest the
sacred; religious music frequently employs a slow pace and repeated rhythms to induce
tranquillity; and religious art often incorporates gold, haloes, equilateral designs, and
circles to suggest otherworldliness and perfection.
Anthropology Anthropology (Greek: “study of human beings”) has been interested in
how religions influence the ways different cultures deal with issues such as family
interaction, individual roles, property rights, marriage, child rearing, social hierarchies,
and division of labor.
Volunteers assist with excavations in Caesarea Maritima, exploring the foundations of a
2,000-year-old seaside temple possibly built by King Herod.
© AP Photo/Eyal Warshavsky
Archeology Archeology (Greek: “study of origins”) explores the remains of earlier
civilizations, often uncovering the artifacts and ruins of religious buildings from ancient
cultures. When possible, archeologists translate writings left by these people, much of
which can be religious in origin. Archeology occasionally sheds light on how one religion
has influenced another. For example, the excavation of a cuneiform library at Nineveh
150 years ago revealed a story (in the Epic of Gilgamesh) that is similar to—and may
have influenced—the biblical story of Noah and the flood. Archeology can also reveal
religious material that enables scholars to decipher an entire writing system. For example,
the discovery in the early nineteenth century of the Rosetta Stone (which contained the
same inscription in three different scripts) led researchers to unlock the meaning of
Egyptian hieroglyphics.