Unit 3 Essay Exam
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The Status of Arab Women During the Introduction of Islam and Changes from the Umayyad to Abbasid Caliphates.
Before the introduction of Islam, the status of Arab women varied based on the cultural norms and the laws of their tribes. Some tribes were more liberal in their treatment of women than others. For instance, women who belonged to the upper-class society could engage with males who were not part of their families in public, were not veiled, and could go to Mecca on pilgrimages in the company of their husbands.[1] The Pre-Islamic period was also marred by practices such as infanticide among female newborns for fear that an increase in the number of females would result in negative economic implications.[2] Islam brought significant changes to Arab community. The Quran generally focused on uplifting women’s status by condemning female abuse and infanticide. Although one of the fundamental principles of Islam was that all people, regardless of gender, were equal before Allah’s eyes, this principle fell short, especially about women. The Muslim society was male-dominated despite the Quran allowing women to inherit and own property. Islam also permitted polygyny although only the husband held the right of divorce. Women were also required to remain in their homes and to limit contact with other males who were not members of their families. Furthermore, the Islamic society, especially within urban areas, required women to cover most parts of their bodies, a practice that continued among most Islamic societies to date. Concerning employment, the Quran strengthened women’s participation in economic activities and occupations although this principle was repressed by strict interpreters of Prophet Muhammad’s teachings who maintained that women should only engage in chores within their houses.[3]
The rise of the Umayyad dynasty was attributed to succession wars that followed after the death of Muhammad. Initially, Abu Bakr, Muhammad’s father-in-law, was selected as the successor because Muhammad had no male children. Bakr’s selection was heavily criticized and some preferred Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law. The succession wars continued until after Ali’s assassination when Mu’awiya, one of Ali’s rivals, took office. The caliphate became hereditary in Mu’awiya’s family which was referred to as the Umayyad.[4] Under the Umayyad, marriage was regarded as an important institution. Evil practices such as female infanticide were prohibited and women held legal rights during their marriages and in case of divorce. Women also had the right to select their marital partners and would receive their dowry after they got divorced. Additionally, women could engage in politics, go to school and participate in various occupations, and were not required to cover themselves with veils.[5]
A revolt in 750 led by Muhammad’s uncle led to the defeat of the Umayyad and the Abbasid caliphate was established. Although the Abbasid rule led to positive economic changes for Arabs, the status of women deteriorated heavily during this period. In this period, free Muslim women held a similar status to slaves due to loss of personal and property rights.[6] Women could no longer engage in public life since their movement was restricted. Women had no professional or property rights and even lost autonomy over their bodies. The practice of female infanticide reemerged such that a female birth was equated to a male death. Women also lost their right to select marriage partners and were viewed as commodities pg. 164.[7]
The Roles of Women in the Aztec Society
Gender roles within the Aztec community were stratified such that from childhood, male and female children took up distinct roles. At birth, children were washed in earthenware, and objects which represented their homemaking role, including a spindle, broom, and basket were laid on each side. Female children who were not selected to be priestesses were expected to learn domestic chores by observing their mothers. Aztec women generally got married later in life in comparison to other cultures mainly because they learned various crafts including feather making and weaving as teenagers and could not get married until they completed their schooling. The parents to the groom played an important role in initiating the marriages. Obedience and chastity were regarded as very desirable qualities for women and all brides were expected to remain virgins before marriage. During wedding ceremonies, women, especially the kinsmen of the bride, would decorate the bride using jewelry and paint.[8]
Women in the Aztec society were permitted to be midwives and their main role was to advise pregnant women about prenatal care and to assist them during the delivery period. Midwives also helped expectant women with their house duties especially during the end of their pregnancies when heavy work or lifting heavy objects was discouraged. Since midwives resided with pregnant women, their role also involves ensuring that women were adequately prepared for the birth of their children. Furthermore, women played the role of healers and analyzed illnesses through divination. They also used treatments such as sweat baths and provided counseling on inter-household relations in addition to family affairs.[9]
At home, women were generally expected to work in their homes and engage in activities such as raising children and weaving textiles. They mainly used a handheld spindle to weave textiles from cotton. Moreover, they tended to domestic animals such as dogs and turkeys which were mainly raised for meat. They prepared and cooked meals for their families. Any extra domestic items including vegetables and clothes could be sold by women in the market. Notably, Aztec women enjoyed many rights in comparison to other women from other cultures although they were not regarded as equals to men. They were allowed to participate in various professions including being doctors, priestesses, and sorcerers. They were often valued as professionals with high crafting and waving skills and worked with dyes, cotton, and clay.[10]
Women could enter into contracts and be also allowed to inherit and own property. Women were treated equally as men within their parents’ families and also held public authority positions in marketplaces and in temples. Market women held high social status since they controlled a significant amount of wealth and were just as respected as noblewomen. They sold numerous items including wild herbs, firewood, food, textiles, and salt. Some women served as marketplace administrators whose role included ensuring that prices were fair and also assigned war provisions such as tortillas and maize dough. When the war was declared, women would be expected to prepare food that would nourish the army as they went to battle.[11]
Bibliography
Duiker, William, and Jackson Spielvogel. The Essential World History-Volume I: To 1800. 7th ed. Cengage Learning, 2014.
Geissinger, Aisha. “Women, Islam, and Abbasid Identity”. Journal of Middle East Women’s Studies 13, no. 1 (2017): 132-134. https://doi.org/10.1215/15525864-3728712.
Giladi, Avner. “Some Observations on Infanticide in Medieval Muslim Society”. International Journal Of Middle East Studies 22, no. 2 (1990): 185-200. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0020743800033377.
Malik, Ra’ana, and Saud-ul-Hassan Khan Rohilla. “From Activism to Domestication of Muslim Women under Umayyad”. Journal of the Punjab University Historical Society 31, no. 2 (2018): 167-179.
Schwartz, David A. “Aztec Pregnancy: Archaeological and Cultural Foundations for Motherhood and Childbearing in Ancient Mesoamerica”. Global Maternal and Child Health, 2018, 11-33. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71538-4_2.
[1] William Duiker and Jackson Spielvogel, The Essential World History-Volume I: To 1800, 7th ed. Cengage Learning, 2014, 173.
[2] Avner Giladi, “Some Observations On Infanticide In Medieval Muslim Society”, International Journal Of Middle East Studies 22, no. 2 (1990): 186, doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/s0020743800033377.
[3] Duiker and Spielvogel, 173-174.
[4] Duiker and Spielvogel, 175.
[5] Ra’ana Malik and Saud-ul-Hassan Khan Rohilla, “From Activism To Domestication Of Muslim Women Under Umayyad”, Journal Of The Punjab University Historical Society 31, no. 2 (2018): 169.
[6]Duiker and Spielvogel, 177.
[7] Geissinger, Aisha. “Women, Islam, And Abbasid Identity”. Journal Of Middle East Women’s Studies 13, no. 1 (2017): 133. https://doi.org/10.1215/15525864-3728712.
[8] Duiker and Spielvogel, 173-174.
[9] David A. Schwartz, “Aztec Pregnancy: Archaeological And Cultural Foundations For Motherhood And Childbearing In Ancient Mesoamerica”, Global Maternal And Child Health, 2018, 12-14, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71538-4_2.
[10] Duiker and Spielvogel, 154.
[11] Duiker and Spielvogel, 154.