Activity 7: Social and Behavioral Epidemiology
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Epidemiology refers to the study of disease incidence, causes, and prevention among specific population groups. Social epidemiology focuses on how social-structural factors impact health while behavioral epidemiology focuses on the impact of behavior on health conditions (Ballesteros et al., 2018). The purpose of this essay is to describe the role of epidemiology in development of prevention strategies for unintentional injuries and violence and describe trends in the development of chronic illnesses.
Unintentional injuries and Violence
Unintentional injuries and violence result in substantial physical, emotional, and economic damage. Injuries and violence are the leading cause of mortality for young people and adults aged between 1 and 44. Additionally, they are among the main causes of disability for all people regardless of race, gender, and socioeconomic status (CDC, 2021).
The epidemiology of unintentional injuries and violence illustrates that deaths from these injuries in the U.S. are mainly caused by unintentional poisoning, falls, drowning, and motor vehicle accidents. Factors contributing to unintentional injury and violence include individual behavior such as alcohol use, the physical environment which increases the risk for fires, falls, and other forms of injuries, and the social environment. Access to healthcare services including emergency services and acute care plays a significant role in mitigating the impacts of unintentional injuries and violence (CDC, 2021).
Epidemiology data has facilitated the implementation of strategies such as improvements in road and vehicle design that reduce the risk of road accidents. Additionally, advancements in occupational safety through implementation of appropriate regulations has reduced unintentional injuries in workplaces. Development of health services such as emergency services, injury rehabilitation, and trauma systems have led to improved management of injuries. Furthermore, policies such as no driving under influence have also helped reduce the incidence of unintentional injuries. Epidemiology has informed violence prevention through the development of nurturing environments that encourage children to be taught more effective ways of problem solving and useful social skills. Services such as anger management therapy reduce the risk of violence. Additionally, the law allows for reporting of any forms of violence including sexual and physical violence and all offenders are punished (Ballesteros et al., 2018).
Chronic Disease Epidemic
Chronic diseases refer to mental or physical illnesses that last longer than a one-year period, result in significant deterioration in an individual’s functioning, and require continuous treatment and monitoring. The incidence of chronic illnesses such as diabetes, cancer, hypertension, heart disease, obesity, and stroke in the U.S. has increased significantly within the past 50 years. Currently, approximately six in ten adults in the U.S. suffer from at least one chronic illness (Raghupathi & Raghupathi, 2018).
The main behavioral factors associated with the development of chronic illnesses include sedentary behavior, diet, sexual practices, alcohol consumption, and tobacco use. Tobacco use increases the risk of heart disease and the development of cancers of the mouth, lung, bladder, esophagus, larynx, and kidney. Sedentary lifestyles and unhealthy diets lead to obesity which in turn increase the risk of respiratory illnesses, hypertension, breast cancer, and colon cancer. Excessive consumption of alcohol increases the risk of liver disease and alcohol dependence is linked to poor functioning. Unsafe sexual practices increase the risk of sexual transmitted infections such as HIV/AIDS which has no cure and requires life-long treatment. Other diseases such as genital herpes, gonorrhea, syphilis, and human papilloma virus (HPV) are also sexually transmitted. Notably, chronic illnesses can be prevented through consuming healthy diets, reducing alcohol and tobacco use, increasing physical activity (Lewis et al., 2020).
The social factors contributing to the chronic disease epidemic include education, income, and ethnicity. Income levels influence access to healthy food. People with little to no income are forced to live in areas with poor quality housing, water, and air pollution which increase the risk of illnesses such as respiratory illnesses. Additionally, poor neighborhoods are characterized by high crime rates which increase the risk of mental illnesses such as depression and physical illnesses such as hypertension. Poverty is also linked to poor access to healthcare due to lack of insurance and inability to afford medication which in turn leads to poor health outcomes. Racial minorities are exposed to discrimination which increases the risk of chronic illnesses such as mental illnesses, hypertension, and heart disease. High education attainment is linked to reduced prevalence of chronic illnesses due to improved health literacy levels (Cockerham et al., 2017).
Child and Adolescent Obesity
The health belief model posits that an individual’s perceptions regarding their susceptibility to an illness, severity of the illness, barriers to managing or preventing the illness, and the cost of implementing a proposed intervention influence health-related behaviors (Rejeski & Fanning, 2019). Childhood and adolescent obesity is a significant issue that emerges from factors such as genetic predisposition, sedentary lifestyle, poor eating habits among families, and psychological factors such as low self-esteem, depression, anxiety, and eating disorders. Parents who perceive childhood obesity as an insignificant issue or do not believe that they can successfully implement actions that prevent childhood obesity expose their children to the negative implications of obesity on their wellbeing. Failure to implement interventions such as encouraging consumption of healthy food and physical activity increase the risk of poor physical health, mental health, emotional, and social wellbeing. The medical implications of childhood obesity include increased risk of developing medical conditions such as type 2 diabetes, sleep apnea, asthma, cardiovascular illnesses, and glucose intolerance. For adolescents, issues such as menstrual abnormalities may arise. Obesity also result in social consequences such as withdrawal and isolation due to difficulty engaging in physical activity and discrimination by other children. Obese children also exhibit poor academic performance, low self-esteem, negative perceptions about body image, and low self-confidence (Kansra et al., 2021).
Conclusion
Behavioral and social epidemiology facilitate better understanding of the causes of chronic illnesses. This information can be used by healthcare professionals to implement interventions that encourage behavior change and manipulate physical and social factors to promote good health.
References
Ballesteros, M., Williams, D., Mack, K., Simon, T., & Sleet, D. (2018). The Epidemiology of Unintentional and Violence-Related Injury Morbidity and Mortality among Children and Adolescents in the United States. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(4), 616. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15040616
CDC. (2021). Injuries and Violence Are Leading Causes of Death. https://www.cdc.gov/injury/wisqars/animated-leading-causes.html.
Cockerham, W., Hamby, B., & Oates, G. (2017). The Social Determinants of Chronic Disease. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 52(1), S5-S12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2016.09.010
Kansra, A. R., Lakkunarajah, S., & Jay, M. S. (2021). Childhood and Adolescent Obesity: A Review. Frontiers in pediatrics, 8, 581461. https://doi.org/10.3389/fped.2020.581461
Lewis, T., Huang, J., & Trempe, C. (2020). Reduction in Chronic Disease Risk and Burden in a 70-Individual Cohort through Modification of Health Behaviors. Cureus. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.10039
Raghupathi, W., & Raghupathi, V. (2018). An Empirical Study of Chronic Diseases in the United States: A Visual Analytics Approach to Public Health. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(3), 431. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15030431
Rejeski, W., & Fanning, J. (2019). Models and theories of health behavior and clinical interventions in aging: a contemporary, integrative approach. Clinical Interventions in Aging, Volume 14, 1007-1019. https://doi.org/10.2147/cia.s206974