Development and Curriculum across the Early Childhood Years
This final section of the chapter examines how the developmental characteristics of children at different times influence the way curriculum is conceived to meet their needs and interests.
Infants and Toddlers
Good curriculum for infants and toddlers is significantly different from curriculum for preschool and older children in many ways, but it is grounded in the same principles of DAP (described in Chapter 1) that apply throughout the early childhood years (Gestwicki, 2011). Curricula for children from birth to age 3 focus on developing a warm and secure relationship between child and adult and providing an environment that is safe, calm, orderly, predictable, responsive to the child’s needs, and engaging (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009; Gestwicki, 2011).
A key to planning a curriculum for infants and toddlers is applying the concept of the zone of proximal developmentthat is, anticipating what skills are likely to emerge soon, actively working on what is current, and practicing what has already been mastered (Deiner, 2009, p. 515). Curricular goals for infants and toddlers focus on attainment of expected milestones in each of the developmental domains, primarily:
- Locomotion and control of large muscles
- Acquisition of self-help skills through fine motor control
- Comprehending and beginning to express language
- Developing secure attachments with adults
- Acquiring an emerging sense of self
- Expressing curiosity about others and the environment (Miller & Albrecht, 2001; South Carolina Program for Infant and Toddler Care, 2009)
Physical Domain
Infants are completely dependent on adults to meet their physical needs and move them from place to place. As they become mobile and develop an “upright” perspective (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009), older infants and toddlers become more interested in exploring their surroundings; they need freedom to move about while maintaining their sense of security and safety. Infant-toddler curriculum that supports the acquisition of locomotion will include:
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- Supporting the head, body, and limbs as the infant gains control and balance of the upper and lower trunk
- During routines such as diapering or floor play, moving the infant’s arms and legs in motions that mimic those needed for later crawling and walking
- Providing room and time to creep and crawl; using motivators such as a soft squeaking toy to entice the child to move toward the adult holding the toy
- Manual and environmental assistance for the child attempting to stand and take tentative steps, such as standing behind the child, letting him or her grasp the adult’s fingers for support
- Placement of low furniture that the child can use for cruising, which means holding onto objects to move around the room
- Opportunities to practice walking forward, backward, and sideways on different kinds of surfaces both barefoot and with shoes
- Opportunities to practice climbing and walking on steps and stairs safely
- Time and space for learning to run, stop, and regulate speed (Deiner, 2009)
Like gross motor development, fine motor movements of the hands and feet involve the integration of vision, perception, and muscle control to master reaching, grasping, holding, and coordinating movements of the hands, fingers, and feet (Deiner, 2009). These movements are necessary for all eventual self-help skills such as dressing, feeding, and maintaining balance and control of locomotion. An infant-toddler curriculum for fostering fine motor skills will include:
- Helping infants develop their visual tracking ability by moving a small toy or object across their field of vision or, for example, providing a rotating mobile above the crib. Providing incentives for children to reach out by placing interesting objects in front of them.
- Letting the infant practice grasping an adult’s fingers and small toys.
- Coordinating movements with both hands and/or feet, such as clapping, playing peek-a-boo, and so on.
- Providing a selection of interesting objects, materials, and toys that give older infants and toddlers opportunities to practice and refine their fine motor skills and coordinateeye-hand movements. Objects must be sized appropriatelysmall enough to be managed without frustration but not so small they pose a choking hazard. Objects that are small should be tested with a choke tube.
The “Jump, Jump” Song for Toddlers
Learning to jump involves coordinating the legs and body to move upward of one surface and land in the same place or on another surface, such as a lower step. Children learn to jump from one foot to another, jump off a surface with both feet, and develop the skill to jump from increasingly high levels. To encourage children to develop this skill, one toddler teacher uses what she calls the “Jump, Jump” song as part of the children’s daily greeting circle.
The song serves four purposes. It (1) helps children learn names of friends, (2) encourages and motivates children to develop their jumping skill, (3) encourages coordination of fine (clapping) and gross (jumping) motor skills, and (4) provides a means to monitor skill development of individual children.
Children love this activity and take increasing delight over time as their jumping skill develops. Learning to jump in this kind of safe environment also helps them develop the control they will need in using their emerging ability to jump in less structured environments such as the playground.
The activity proceeds as follows:
- Children sit in a small circle with the teacher on the floor.
- The teacher invites a child to the center of the circle to jump. The child may accept or decline, choosing to watch other children instead.
- While the child inside the circle jumps, the teacher and children clap and chant or sing, “There was a child in a class and [insert name of child] was her name-o; jump, jump [name of child]; jump jump [name of child]; jump, jump [name of child]; we’re glad you’re here today.” The activity is repeated until all children who want to jump have had a chance to do so.
Stop and Reflect
In addition to development of motor skills, what other benefits do the children gain from this kind of activity?
Affective Domain
Human beings are social creatures, and early affective development is highly dependent on the extent to which the child learns to trust adults, form secure attachments, and feel secure that her needs will be met consistently. If an infant is consistently left wet, tired, hungry, or alone most of the time, it isn’t hard to see why it will be more difficult for him to develop a cheerful disposition and interest in others (Maslow, 1943).
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Many mid-twentieth-century studies of institutionalized infants who had only their physical needs met but were otherwise deprived of interaction with adults reported failure to thrive physically, severe delays and/or intellectual deficits, and even death (Bowlby, 1940; Ribble, 1944; Spitz, 1945). These and similar findings were so alarming that, in the United States, they led to replacement of institutionalized care with the foster home system. Adults are also reminded, for example, that toddlers are motivated to test their boundaries and may use temper tantrums to express what they have not yet developed the ability to communicate efficiently in words.
A good curriculum for infants’ and toddlers’ social and emotional development is likely to feature:
- Pairing each infant with a single or primary caregiver or teacher to the extent possible
- Giving prompt attention to the child’s physical needs
- Helping children manage separation from their families
- Allowing time for cuddling, holding, and soothing
- Acknowledging the child’s emerging personality
- Offering activities that promote a sense of self, gender identity, and belonging
- Supporting the toddler’s increasing desire for independence within an atmosphere of acceptance for an emerging capacity for verbal communication
- Providing opportunities to engage with other children and adults
- Providing opportunities to help with simple chores and classroom care routines
Curricula for infants and toddlers also address the need to help children acquire self-control. Teachers are expected to provide encouragement and maintain reasonable expectations. They also manage the environment and daily schedule so that children are not overwhelmed or overstimulated with too many choices, activities, or materials.