NON-WESTERN ETHICAL THINKING
It is tempting to think that the ethical theories that have been described here are applicable only in business relations within cultures that share our Western ethical traditions: Europe and the Americas. Since the rest of the world has different foun- dations for its ethical systems, it might seem that what we learn here won’t be appli- cable in our business dealings in, for example, Japan, India, Africa, or Saudi Arabia. However, this thinking is incorrect. Ethics is not geographic or cultural. Indeed, ethical thinking and standards have developed similarly around the world and is not dependent on a Western cultural or religious tradition. Since the engineering workforce in the United States is international, and since engineering itself is a global profession with engineers from differing cultural backgrounds working together all over the world, it is important that we understand the origins of ethical thinking from places outside the Western world.
A detailed understanding of ethical thinking from cultures around the world is well beyond the scope (or page limit!) of a book such as this. So we will look at the ethical thinking in a few representative cultural/religious traditions—Chinese, Indian, Islamic, and Buddhist—and will attempt to see how these ethical principles infl uence the ethics of engineering practice in these cultures. In trying to do this in a few para- graphs, we will of necessity oversimplify ethical traditions that have developed over centuries, and which are not monolithic, but rather have evolved rich and varied inter- pretations and meanings over the centuries as they have matured, and expanded into new cultural groups. Despite the diversity of origins of ethical philosophy, we will see that the ethical concepts governing engineering practice are similar regardless of where engineers practice.
For example, ethical principles in Arab countries are grounded in the tradi- tions of their religion, Islam. Islam is one of the three major monotheistic religions, along with Christianity and Judaism. It is surprising to many Westerners that Islam, which developed in the Middle East just as Judaism and Christianity did, shares many prophets and religious concepts with the other two monotheistic religions. The foundations of ethical principles relating to engineering and business in Islamic countries are thus very similar to those in Western countries. Although cul- tural practices may vary when dealing with the many Islamic nations that stretch from Africa and the Middle East to Southeast Asia, the same ethical principles that apply in Western countries are applicable.
Similarly, ethical principles of Hindus, Buddhists, and practitioners of all the world’s major religions are similar. Although the ethical principles in other cultures may be derived in different ways, the results are generally the same regardless of culture.
Chapter 3 Understanding Ethical Problems 47
Personal ethics are not determined by geography. Personal and business behav- ior should be the same regardless of where you happen to be on a given day. For example, few would fi nd the expression “When in Rome, do as the Romans do” applicable to personal morality. If you believe that being deceptive is wrong, cer- tainly it is no less wrong when you are dealing with a (hypothetical) culture where this behavior is not considered to be bad. Thus, the ethics that we discuss in this book will be applicable regardless of where you are doing business.
3.4.1 Chinese Ethical Traditions Chinese ethical philosophy originates with the writings of Kongzi, more commonly known in the West by his Latinized name, Confucius, who lived from 551 to 479 BCE in what is now the southern portion of Shandong province in China. Confucius’ writ- ten works refl ect a practical rather than a theoretical approach to moral problems, unlike Western philosophy after Plato that emphasizes more theoretical thinking. This way of thinking is often called “pre-theoretical.” Confucian ethics emphasizes the role of ideal character traits. As such, it has much in common with the Western concept of virtue ethics.
Confucian ethics emphasizes the importance of balancing individual rights with the needs of the larger community, often expressed through a sense of mutual respect. In trying to balance individual and group rights, Confucianism emphasizes the fact that this is not an either/or proposition: either individual rights are para- mount or the rights of society as a whole are paramount. Rather Confucianism emphasizes the interdependence of the group and the individual. In other words, the individual depends on the group and so must take group concerns into account, but also the group must recognize its dependence on individuals and must respect individual rights. In acknowledging this interdependence, Confucianism mirrors the tension inherent in trying to balance the Western concepts of utilitarianism and rights or duty ethics [ Wong, 2008 ].
It is tempting to think that the ethical theories that have been described here are applicable only in business relations within cultures that share our Western ethical traditions: Europe and the Americas. Since the rest of the world has different foun- dations for its ethical systems, it might seem that what we learn here won’t be appli- cable in our business dealings in, for example, Japan, India, Africa, or Saudi Arabia. However, this thinking is incorrect. Ethics is not geographic or cultural. Indeed, ethical thinking and standards have developed similarly around the world and is not dependent on a Western cultural or religious tradition. Since the engineering workforce in the United States is international, and since engineering itself is a global profession with engineers from differing cultural backgrounds working together all over the world, it is important that we understand the origins of ethical thinking from places outside the Western world.
A detailed understanding of ethical thinking from cultures around the world is well beyond the scope (or page limit!) of a book such as this. So we will look at the ethical thinking in a few representative cultural/religious traditions—Chinese, Indian, Islamic, and Buddhist—and will attempt to see how these ethical principles infl uence the ethics of engineering practice in these cultures. In trying to do this in a few para- graphs, we will of necessity oversimplify ethical traditions that have developed over centuries, and which are not monolithic, but rather have evolved rich and varied inter- pretations and meanings over the centuries as they have matured, and expanded into new cultural groups. Despite the diversity of origins of ethical philosophy, we will see that the ethical concepts governing engineering practice are similar regardless of where engineers practice.
For example, ethical principles in Arab countries are grounded in the tradi- tions of their religion, Islam. Islam is one of the three major monotheistic religions, along with Christianity and Judaism. It is surprising to many Westerners that Islam, which developed in the Middle East just as Judaism and Christianity did, shares many prophets and religious concepts with the other two monotheistic religions. The foundations of ethical principles relating to engineering and business in Islamic countries are thus very similar to those in Western countries. Although cul- tural practices may vary when dealing with the many Islamic nations that stretch from Africa and the Middle East to Southeast Asia, the same ethical principles that apply in Western countries are applicable.
Similarly, ethical principles of Hindus, Buddhists, and practitioners of all the world’s major religions are similar. Although the ethical principles in other cultures may be derived in different ways, the results are generally the same regardless of culture.
Chapter 3 Understanding Ethical Problems 47
Personal ethics are not determined by geography. Personal and business behav- ior should be the same regardless of where you happen to be on a given day. For example, few would fi nd the expression “When in Rome, do as the Romans do” applicable to personal morality. If you believe that being deceptive is wrong, cer- tainly it is no less wrong when you are dealing with a (hypothetical) culture where this behavior is not considered to be bad. Thus, the ethics that we discuss in this book will be applicable regardless of where you are doing business.
3.4.1 Chinese Ethical Traditions Chinese ethical philosophy originates with the writings of Kongzi, more commonly known in the West by his Latinized name, Confucius, who lived from 551 to 479 BCE in what is now the southern portion of Shandong province in China. Confucius’ writ- ten works refl ect a practical rather than a theoretical approach to moral problems, unlike Western philosophy after Plato that emphasizes more theoretical thinking. This way of thinking is often called “pre-theoretical.” Confucian ethics emphasizes the role of ideal character traits. As such, it has much in common with the Western concept of virtue ethics.
Confucian ethics emphasizes the importance of balancing individual rights with the needs of the larger community, often expressed through a sense of mutual respect. In trying to balance individual and group rights, Confucianism emphasizes the fact that this is not an either/or proposition: either individual rights are para- mount or the rights of society as a whole are paramount. Rather Confucianism emphasizes the interdependence of the group and the individual. In other words, the individual depends on the group and so must take group concerns into account, but also the group must recognize its dependence on individuals and must respect individual rights. In acknowledging this interdependence, Confucianism mirrors the tension inherent in trying to balance the Western concepts of utilitarianism and rights or duty ethics [ Wong, 2008 ].